IMBEL MD Series Assault Rifle

IMBEL MD-2 rifle (MD-3 rifle in the insert below)

The MD-2 assault rifle was developed by IMBEL (Industria de Materiel Belico do Brasil). Development began circa 1982, first prototype, named MD-1, appeared in 1983 and final version,named MD-2, came out circa 1985 and later was adopted by Brasilian military.

MD-2 started as a simply scaled down FN FAL rifle (manufactured in Brasil under license as IMBEL LAR), but during the design time the FAL locking system (tilting block) was replaced by M16-type rotating bolt. The receiver design is, however, still very similar to FAL.

MD-2 is a gas operated, selective fire assault rifle, with rotating bolt locking. Trigger group is mounted into the pistol grip unit, which is hinged to the receiver and folds down and forward for disassembly and maintenance. MD-2 featured side-folding metallic buttstock, MD-3 rifle is similar to the MD-2 but has fixed plastic buttstock. MD-2 uses any M16 style magazines.

Caliber: 5.56x45 mm (.223 remington)
Action: Gas operated, rotating bolt
Overall length: 1010 mm (764 mm with folded stock)
Barrel length: 453 mm
Weigth: 4.4 kg
Rate of fire: 700 rounds per minute
Magazine capacity: 20 or 30 rounds

The FN CAL

The FN CAL ("Carabine Automatique Légère", or Light Automatic Carbine) was first demonstrated in 1967. It was an early attempt of the famous Belgian company Fabrique Nationale (FN) to produce an assault rifle chambered for then-new American 5.56mm small-bore, high-velocity cartridge. The FN CAL rifle was designed with mass production in mind, with extensive use of steel stampings and plastics. However, the production life of this rifle was relatively short, and only about 12 000 of FN CAL rifles were manufactured before FN closed the CAL production line in 1977 and switched to more promising design, known as FN FNC. Most of these rifles were sold in Latin America and Africa. The main problems, associated with FN CAL rifles, were complexity of manufacture of certain parts, insufficient reliability and somewhat complex maintenance procedures.

FN CAL assault rifle with fixed butt

The FN CAL assault rifle is gas operated, select-fire weapon. It uses short-stroke gas piston, located above the barrel. The locking is achieved by rotating bolt with multiple radial lugs that engage the barrel extension. Receiver is made from steel stampings and assembled from two parts (upper and lower), hinged at the front. Trigger unit is equipped with 4-position safety / fire selector, and allows for single shots, 3-round bursts and full automatic fire. The charging handle is located on the right side of the receiver, and moves along with the bolt group when gun is fired. Rifle can be fitted with fixed plastic butt or side-folding metallic butt. Standard sights consist of front post and L-shaped rear sight with two apertures (for 250 and 400 meters range). The muzzle compensator / flash hider is shaped to accept rifle grenades; the US-made M203 grenade launcher can be fitted under the rifle, if required. Feed was from proprietary box magazines with 20- or 30-round capacity.

FN CAL assault rifle with folding butt and optional telescope sight

Caliber: 5.56x45 mm
Action: Gas operated, rotating bolt
Overall length: 926 mm
Barrel length: 467 mm
Weight: 3.0 kg empty
Rate of fire: 850 rounds per minute
Magazine capacity: 20 or 30 rounds

Advanced Infantry Combat Weapon

The AICW (Advanced Infantry Combat Weapon) is a joint development of the Australian DSTO (Government operated Defence Science and Technology Organisation), and private companies Metal Storm and Tenix Defence. This development has been carried out since the turn of 21st century, closely following the concept of the American XM29 OICW system. Overall, AICW represents the modular weapon system that combines the 5.56mm rifle/carbine copmponent as a host (basic) platform with 40mm multi-shot grenade launcher (G/L) module and multi-purpose electro-optical sighting system, which can be used to fire either rifle or G/L component, and also can provide recon data to external "consumers" such as tactical computers.

2001 concept of the AICW system

The host rifle component of the AICW is the updated Australian-made F88 rifle, which is a license-built Steyr AUG.However, the basic F88 rifle has been extensively modified to accept other elements of the system - for example, receiver has been upgraded to receive the G/L module at the top, and the buttstock has been enlarged to accomodate G/L electronic fire contol module. Other changes include modification to the safety and trigger arrangements - AICW system has a single trigger for both weapon components (5.56 and 40mm), and a three position (safe - rifle - G/L) safety/selector switch at the side of the pistol grip.

2003 concept of the AICW system

The most interesting part of the AICW weapon is the multi-shot Metal Storm 40mm grenade launcher, which looks like a single 40mm G/L barrel but contains three 40mm projectiles stacked one behind the another. These projectiles are launched using the electric ignition impulses, provided by the fire control module built into the buttstock of the host rifle. Since the muzzle velocity of these projectiles is slightly more than usual for 40mm handheld G/L (95m/s instead of 75m/s), host rifle incorporates the recoil reduction buffer, that allows the Metal Storm G/L barrel to recoil against the spring, decreasing the peak recoil impulse.

2005 testing prototype AICW VX3 weapon

The top of the receiver hosts the multi-role sights of various type and make. At the AICW VX3 live fire demonstartions that took place in the summer of 2005, AICW prototypes were displayed with ITL Viper multi-purpose rifle sight (that incorporates laser range-finder and digital compas), or with Vinghog Vingsight Fire Control System. At the present time (late 2005) AICW prototypes have not yet fired 40mm grenades with live warheads, nor incorporated an airburst facility. However, it is stated that it is possible to easily adapt most of the existing 40mm grenade warheads to the Metal Storm technology, including air-bursting grenades that are now in development in several countries.

At the present time AICW weapons are available only as the "3rd generation technology demonstrators", that completed first live-fire trials (as a complete system) in the summer of 2005. Current Australian MOD plans state that ADF may start to purchase AICW systems in around 2010-2012.

Caliber: 5.56x45mm NATO + 40mm
Action: Gas operated, rotating bolt + Metal Storm patented stacked-projectile caseless
Overall length: 738 mm
Barrel length: n/a
Weigth: 6.48 kg unloaded, w/o sight; 7.85 kg loaded w/o sight (30 5.56mm + 3 40mm rounds); 9.9-9.9 kg loaded w. electronic sight
Rate of fire: 650 rounds per minute (for 5.56mm barrel)
Capacity: 30 rounds (5.56mm) magazine plus 3 40mm rounds in the G/L barrel

Steyr AUG (Armee Universal Gewehr - Universal Army Rifle)

The Steyr AUG (Armee Universal Gewehr - Universal Army Rifle) had been indevelopment since the late 1960s, as a replacement for venerable but obsolete Stg.58 (FN FAL) battle rifles for Austrian army. It was developed by the Austrian Steyr-Daimler-Puch company (now the Steyr-Mannlicher AG & Co KG) in close conjunction with Austrian Army. The major design is attributed to the three men - Horst Wesp, Karl Wagner and Karl Möser, who developed most of the rifle features. From the Austrian Office of Military Technology the project was supervised by the Colonel Walter Stoll. The new rifle has been adopted by the Austrian Army in 1977, as the Stg.77 (Assault rifle, model of 1977), and production began in 1978. Since then, the AUG gained serious popularity, being adopted by the armed forces of Australia, Austria, New Zealand, Oman, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Ireland and some others. It also was widely purchased by various security and law enforcement agencies worldwide, including the US Coastal Guard. The Steyr AUG can be considered as the most commercially successful bullpup assault rifle to date. Since the 1997, the Steyr-Mannlicher produced an updated version of the AUG, the AUG A2.

Steyr AUG A1 Carbine (police black colour)

In around 2005, Steyr-Mannlicher introduced the most recent version of AUG, the AUG A3. This version is characterized by addition of four Picatinny-type accessory rails - one at the top of the receiver, and three around the barrel, in front of the receiver - at both sides and below it. Therefore there AUG A3 has no standard / integral sighting equipment; instead, any open, telescope or night vision sights can be installed on the upper rail, using appropriate mountings. Lower rail can be used to mount various attachments like tactical front grips, flash-lights, and a specially designed 40mm grenade launcher. Side rails can be used for equipment like laser-aiming devices.

 Steyr AUG A1 in standard rifle configuration (military green colour)

Some said that the AUG rifle was revolutionary in many respects when it first appeared, but this is not true. In fact, the AUG is a clever combination of the various previously known ideas, assembled into one sound, reliable and aesthetically attractive package. Let's look at this a little closer. Bullpup configuration: The Steyr AUG is not a first military bullpup ever devised. In fact, British Enfield EM-2 and Soviet Korobov TKB-408 bullpup assault rifles precede the AUG by some 25-30 years. The French FAMAS bullpup also appeared on the scene at the very same time, as the AUG did. Plasticfirearm housing: Another Soviet experimental bullpup design, Korobov TKB-022, had the plastic housing as early as in 1962, and the FAMAS rifle, again, has this same feature at the same time as AUG did. Telescope sight as a standard: The British EM-2 bullpup rifle of late 1940s, as well as the experimental Canadian FN FAL prototypes of early 1950s, also featured a low-magnification telescope sights as their prime sighting equipment. A modular design: First systems, consisting of various firearms based on the same receiver and action (automatic rifle, light machine gun, carbine) were originally developed in 1920s in France by Rossignol and in Soviet Russia by Fedorov. Considering all said above, one must agree that the AUG was a logical development of various well known ideas,and a really successful one.

Steyr AUG with M203 40mmgrenade launcher

In general, the AUG is known for good ergonomics,decent accuracy and a good reliability.

Steyr AUG A2 with Carbine configuration (shorter barrel) and with Picatinny-type rail installed instead of standard telescope sight

AUG is built around the aluminium casting receiver, with steel reinforcement inserts. One such insert is used to provide the locking to the removable barrels and the rotating bolt, thus relieving the receiver from most of the firing stress. Other inserts are used as a bearings for the bolt carrier guide rods.

Comparison of various AUG barrels, from top to bottom: LMG/heavy barrel with bipod;standard rifle barrel; carbine barrel; SMG barrel.

The AUG uses a short piston stroke, gas operated action, with the gas piston mounted inside the compact gas block, which is fixed to the barrel. The gas cylinder is offset to the right from the barrel. Gas piston has its own return spring, contained inside the gas block. The gas system features a three positions gas regulator, which allows for two open positions (for normal and fouled conditions) and one closed position (for launching the rifle grenades). The gas block also contains a barrel fix / release lock and a front grip hinge. Each barrel has eight lugs, that lock into the steel insert in the receiver, and there's four basic barrel patterns for the AUG: standard rifle barrel is 508 mm (~20 in) long. "Compact" or "Submachine gun" barrel is 350 mm (13.8 in) long, "Carbine" barrel is 407 mm (16 in) long, and the heavy / LMG (light machine gun) barrel is 621 mm (24.4 in) long. On each rifle barrels can be exchanged in the matter of seconds. Each barrel is fitted with the flash hider, and the heavy 621 mm barrel also is fitted with lightweight folding bipods. There's no bayonet lug on Austrian service rifles, but it can be installed if required.

Steyr AUG A3 in Sniper configuration, with heavier and longer 20inch barrel,detachable bipod and long-range telescopic sight

Barrel replacement procedure, as noted above, takes only few seconds (assuming that the shooter has the spare barrel handy). To remove the barrel, one must take off the magazine, and clear the rifle by operating the cocking handle. Then, grasp the barrel by the front grip, push the barrel retaining button at the gas block, and rotate the barrel and pull it out of the rifle. To install a new barrel, simply push the barrel down into the front of the receiver all the way and then rotate it until it locks. The rifle now is ready to be loaded and fired.

Steyr AUG A3 Carbine with 16inch barrel and special 40mm grenade launcher;grenade launcher sight is attached to the top of removable telescopic rifle sight

The bolt system consists of the bolt carrier, which has two large hollow guide rods, attached to its forward part. The left rod also serves as a link to the charging handle, and the right rod serves as the action rod, which transmits the impulse from the gas piston to the bolt carrier. The rotating bolt has 7 locking lugs, claw extractor and a plunger-type spring loaded ejector. Standard bolt has its extractor on the right side, to facilitate right-side ejection, but the left-side bolts (with mirrored positions of extractor and ejector) are available for those who need left-side ejection. The two return springs are located behind the bolt carrier, around the two string guide rods, that are located inside the bolt carrier guide rods. The cocking handle is located at the left side of the gun and normally does not reciprocate when gun is fired, but it can be solidly engaged to the bolt group if required by depressing the small button on the charging handle. On the latest AUG A2 variant, the charging handle was made folding up and of slightly different shape. The AUG action features a bolt stop device, that holds the bolt group open after the last round of ammunition from the magazine is fired. To release the bolt after the magazine replacement, one must pull the charging handle.

 Steyr AUG A3 Carbine with 16inch barrel and optional forward grip / tactical flashlight and telescope sight

The hammer unit is made as a separate assembly and almost entirely of plastic (including the hammer itself). Only springs and pins are steel. The hammer unit is located in the butt and is linked to the sliding trigger by the dual trigger bars. The safety is of the cross-bolt, push-button type and located above the pistol grip. There's no separate fire mode selector on the AUG rifles. Instead, the trigger itself is used to control the mode of fire. Pulling it half the way back will produce single shots, while the full pull will produce automatic fire. The enlarged triggerguard encloses the whole hand and allows the gun to be fired in winter gloves or mittens.

Cross-section ofthe Steyr AUG rifle

The standard sighting equipment of the Steyr AUG rifle is the 1.5X telescope sight, with aiming reticle made as a circle. This circle is so dimensioned so its visible inner diameter is equal to the visible height of the standing man at 300 meters range. The adjustment knobs on the sight are used only for zeroing. The sight housing, which is integral to the receiver on the AUG A1 models, also features an emergency backup iron sights at the top of the telescope sight housing. Some early production AUG rifles of A1 pattern were fitted with receivers that had an integral scope mounts. On the AUG A2 models, the standard scope mount can be quickly removed and replaced by the Picatinny-type mounting rail.

The housing of the AUG rifles, integral with the pistol handle and triggerguard, is made from the high impact-resistant polymer, and is usually of green (military) or black (police) colour. The housing has two symmetrical ejection ports, one of which is always covered by the plastic cover. The rubber-coated buttplate is detachable and, when removed, opens the access to the rifle internals, including the hammer unit and the bolt group. The buttplate is held in position by the cross-pin, which also serves a s a rear sling swivel attachment point.

The AUG is fed from the detachable box magazines, that hold 30 (standard rifle) or 42 (light machine gun) rounds. The magazines are made from semi-translucent, strong polymer. The magazine release button is located behind the magazine port and is completely ambidextrous (some said that it is equally NOT comfortable for either hand use).

Caliber: 5.56mm NATO (.223rem)
Action: Gas operated, rotating bolt
Overall length: 805 mm (with standard 508 mm barrel)
Barrel length: 508 mm (also 350 mm SMG, 407 mm Carbine or 621 mm LMG heavy barrel)
Weight: 3.8 kg unloaded (with standard 508 mm barrel)
Magazines: 30 or 42 rounds box magazines
Rate of fire: 650 rounds per minute
Effective range of fire: 450-500 meters with standard assault rifle barrel

Steyr ACR

The Advanced Combat Rifle program was started by the US Army in the late 1980s with the main goal to improve the hit probability of average infantry soldier by at least 100 percents above the M16A2 capabilities. During this trials, held in the early 1990s, some new and existing designs from several companies were tested, with more or less success, but no one achieved the 100% improvement in hit probability over the existing M16 rifle, so program was terminated and all participating designs were freezed, which is pity. One of the most interesting participants was a design of the Austrian company Steyr-Mannlicher AG.

Steyr ACR

The Steyr ACR was built as an attempt to revive the fleschette ammunition concept, first tried in the 1960s during US Army SPIW program. In 1960s, the fleschette concept was a failure. In 1990s, it was much more sucessful, but not enough to be worth of total rearming to the new infantry weapon system.

Steyr ACR layout schematic

Steyr ACR is built around a specially designed cartridge of nominal caliber of 5.56mm. This cartridge has simple, cylindrically shaped plastic case. The fleschette, or dart, is totally enclosed in the case. Fleschette diameter is about 1.5 mm (.06 inch), lenght is about 41 mm (1.6 inch), weight 0.66 gramm (10 grains). Fleschette is partially enclosed into discarding sabot, and leaves the muzzle at impressive velocity of 1450 meters per second (4750 fps), still retaining velocity of 910 m/s (2980 fps) at the range of 600 meters. The plastic case had no rim or extracting groove, and priming compound is located annually at the inside wall of the case.

Steyr ACR action drawing from Steyr patent
gas piston in forward position, breech block with chamber in upper position

To fire such uncommon cartridge, Steyr ACR has equally uncommon design. Barrel of nominal caliber of 5.56mm, has a very slow rifling to give initial stabilisation to the fleschette, which is stabilised in flight by its own small fins. Instead of common linear-moving bolt, Steyr ACR have separate chamber (breech block), which can be moved up and down. The whole action is powered by gas drive, which has annual gas piston, located around the barrel. This is how it works:

At first, lets suppose that chamber is empty and rifle is manually cocked for the first shot.In this position the chamber block is its lowest position, aligned with the topmost round in magazine.The gas piston with its operating rod is in its rearmost position and under the pressure of the return spring.When trigger is pressed, the operating rod with gas piston are released and started forward under the pressure of the return spring, which is located around the barrel. This movement, at first, via special rammer, feeds the first round forward from magazine and into the chamber, and then, via shaped cam and breech block spring, rises the breech block with the cartridge into the topmost position. In this position the fixed firing pin passes through the hole in the top of the chamber and penetrates the cartridge wall, igniting the primer composition and firing the round. When projectile (fleschette with sabot) passes the gas port, some of powder gases began to move the gas piston back. This movement, via the operating rod and shaped cam, lowers the breech block with empty case out of alignment with barrel and down to the magazine. When breech comes to stop in the lowest position, a separate rammer feeds next cartridge forward and out of magazine, chambering it. At the same time, the fired case is pushed forward out of the chamber by the next cartridge, and when cleared from the chamber, the spent case simply falls down out of the rifle via the ejection port. The ejection port is located at the bottom of the rifle, ahead of magazine, and this eliminates one of the biggest problems of any bull-pup rifle - a non-ambidextrous (or, in this case - fully ambidextrous) ejection.

If rifle is set to the full auto mode, the firing cycle is repeated as described above. Otherwise, the loaded breech remains in its lowest position, awaiting for the next trigger pull.

This quite comprehensive action was concealed in sleek and comfortable polymer case with AUG-styled pistol grip and large ventilated upper rib with fixed sights. Optical sights also were fitted. Due to extremely high projectile velocity, flight time was very short at any practical ranges, and trajectory was very flat, giving the shooter almost ray-gun performance, which allowed to fire without prior calculations of point of impact - speaking simply, at any practical combat ranges shooter will hit where it aimed, regardless target movements (projectile flight time to the target at 300 meters is about 0.2 seconds). Due to high velocity, Steyr ACR had good killing power and armour piercing capabilities, and due to the low weight of the projectile recoil was low. But it was not enough to double the M16 performance, so, for now, the Steyr ACR remains in prototype or preproductional state and the program is freezed if not abandoned at all.

Caliber: 5.6 mm fleschette
Action: Gas operated, rising breech
Overall length: mm
Barrel length: 540 mm
Weigth: 3.23 kg w/o magazine
Rate of fire: rounds per minute
Magazine capacity: 24 rounds

Modern Robots at War

REMOTEC ANDROS F6A

The REMOTEC ANDROS RONS has proven most effective in IED disposal across the Iraqi Theater.

The "ANDROS" (collectively a part of the RONS - "Remote Ordnance Neutralization System") is a class of remotely-controlled bomb disposal robot used by the American military as well as by SWAT and law enforcement groups. The basic kit includes the LCD monitor, the RONS robot itself, the communications cable supply and the applicable tools needed to keep the RONS functioning at peak performance. Operators are trained on an EOD Robot Training Simulator. The use of robots on the battlefields of today removes the direct risk that EOD personnel were often exposed to in their everyday actions. Most of us rarely have the threat of being blown up in our workplace - EOD personnel lived with that threat routinely until the increased use of battlefield robots made it possible for them to handle explosives from a distance away. In Iraq where the IED is a top killer of American and coalition troops, systems such as the RONS has become a godsend to service personnel and their families. The ANDROS family of robots is designed by the REMOTEC firm, operating as a subsidiary of defense giant Northrop Grumman. Northrop claims to have some 1,000 ANDROS robots in circulation worldwide. There are five major ANDROS variants currently in circulation with the base model being the "F6A". 



 
The ANDROS F6A
 


The F6A weighs in at a respectable 485lbs, features an extending manipulator arm (25lb limit) and four cameras. She is marketed as a "heavy duty" robot with the speed and agility to handle most any task. There is a color camera with full light, zoom, pan and tilt functions. Another camera serves the operator with 216:1 zoom and image stabilization. There is an 80-watt adjustable halogen light and an optional IR lens. The extension arm maintains a third camera with 40:1 zoom capability. There is also a 24-inch camera extender. The two-way weatherproof communications system offers the ANDROS operator full listening capability by way of a microphone and speaker. The gripper arm is fully positional with seven degrees of freedom and can be fitted with optional sensor or weapon systems as needed. Pneumatic wheels can replace the base tracked system without the need for tools to be used in the conversion. The integrated track system allows for traverse across a variety of uneven surfaces including ditches (up to 21-inches), obstacles (up to 18-inches) and stairs (up to 45.75 degree slopes). Three data links make up the communications/control system on the ANDROS F6A. A fiber-optic cable is fed from a spool mounted to the rear of the main compartment. Top speed is approximately 3.5 miles per hour and the turning radius is essentially the length of the robot thanks to its track system. The switchbox can be removed to allow for direct connection to the robot itself. ANDROS accessories include the control station, audio/video attachments, various manipulator arm tools, optional sensors, spare battery kit and maintenance kits.



The operator views the ANDROS actions by way of a 15" LCD anti-glare monitor with picture-in-picture display to access all camera mounts at once. The screen displays current battery life of the console, camera settings and sensor information. The camera feeds can all be recorded and the operator had access to an optional headset display system. Control is by way of joystick.


 
Other ANDROS Models

The Mark VA1 is similar to the F6A model but is larger and weighs in at 790lbs. The "Mini ANDROS-II" is a smaller cousin to the base ANDROS and weighs just 225lbs. The "Wolverine" is the largest of the ANDROS family line and tops the scales at 810lbs. The "Wolverine V2" was a custom design solution weighing in at 1,200lbs to be used for traversing underground mines for the Mine Safety and Health Administration service. She sports a wheeled or tracked design as required by the operator. The HD1 is another wheeled or tracked design but the smallest in the ANDROS family line at just 200lbs.




ANDROS F6A Walk-Around
 


The basic body compartment of the RONS houses the battery and motor, controlling the extended RONS functions. One of the four available cameras is fitted to a telescoping "neck" and helps to provide the visual cues and references back to the operator, viewing what the RONS "sees" on his/her LCD monitor display. There are four accessible quick-action rubber-tired road wheels, two to a side. These can be replaced in use by the integrated tracked wheel system to allow for traverse across uneven terrain including staircases. The rear of the body compartment maintains the cable supply along a spool. The main arm attachment is a large, two-finger grappling system with a wide range of movement and plays a prominent role in the handling of explosive ordnance. The RONS provides adequate mobility and close-range manipulation capabilities at a relatively acceptable purchase and operating cost. Each system is directed via a remote human interface a distance away. Communications from operator to robot are held transceiver/received within a secure communications channel.



 
Current Use and Deployment
 


Based on a Naval Sea Systems Command report, all four services of the United States military have fielded some version of RONS with over 270 having been purchased in total. Continuous improvements have extended the life of each system and battlefield experience has brought about changes to doctrine. Over a five year span alone, some 35 improvement programs have been run on RONS and EOD teams have seen considerable activity with the systems across Iraq. The RONS program has also benefitted from EOD personnel returning from the Iraqi Theater of War and offering their experiences for future development of RONS systems. Iraqi military forces are also being trained by American personnel in use of the RONS and like systems in combating the IED threat.

URBOT

The URBOT can perform a series of tasks including examination and destruction of IED (Improvised Explosive Devices). It has seen use in bomb squads and in the battlefield (Operation Iraqi Freedom). The system is operated by remote control. Planned variants include a mobile remote controlled battlefield surgeon unit and an armed hunter-killer type system.

US Navy Aircraft Carriers prior to WW2

USS Langley

The USS Langley was converted from the collier USS Jupiter - Collier Number 3.

The USS Langley (CV-1) was the United States Navy's first aircraft carrier. The hull of the Langley had seen prior years of service under the name of USS Jupiter (Collier # 3), a collier or coal vessel that also served as the USN's test bed for its first turbo electrically-propelled ship. This experiment was designed to increase safety on board USN vessels by not using the standard coal burning furnaces, thus reducing the chance of an explosion caused by coal dust. President William H. Taft attended the keel laying ceremony and the ship was officially commissioned on April 7th, 1913.

Jupiter had a notable career ferrying Marines of the Pacific Fleet at Mazatlan, Mexico during the Vera Cruz crisis. On her way back she steamed through the Panama Canal on Columbus Day, the first vessel to make the crossing from the west to into the east. Her primary duty then was as a coaling ship of the fleet and was sent to France in both 1917 and 1918. Interestingly enough, on her first voyage she transported a naval aviation detachment of 7 officers and 122 men to England. It was the first United States aviation detachment to arrive in Europe, commanded by Lieutenant Kenneth Whiting, who later became Langley’s first executive officer. Her conversion to an aircraft carrier was authorized on July 11th, 1919, to which she later sailed into Hampton Roads, Virginia, to be decommissioned as the USS Jupiter in March of 1920. The US Navy chose their first carrier to be named as the USS Langley (CV-1) after Samuel Pierpoint Langley (1834-1906), an American pioneer involved in the designing of heavier-than-air craft. This did not bode well with another famous aviation pioneer, Orville Wright, who had his own ideas of who the ship should have been named after.

The USS Langley became an aircraft carrier for the useful purpose of conducting trials into the relatively new idea of seaborne aviation and many changes were required in making taking her from her collier ship origins. The superstructure, cranes, kingposts, masts, and funnels were removed while a rectangular flight deck was installed. The full-length wood flight deck was fitted to a steel framework. Below the deck was spacing to allow for ventilation and natural lighting to help below-deck work and general safety conditions. One elevator was added amidships and 2 launch catapults were installed on the flight deck.

The six large cargo holds (original used for coal storage on the Jupiter) proved ideal as aircraft hanger decks for aircraft and associated machinery spaces positioned aft. The electric drive motors remained from her Jupiter days and powered 3 boilers, producing 190psi and 6,500 shaft horsepower to 2 propeller shafts. This powerplant arrangement allowed the new displacement of 15,150 tons full to make an impressive 15.5 knots. For self-defense, the USS Langley was fitted with 4 x 5” 51 caliber single gun mounts. CV-1 had room for approximately 34 aircraft (biplanes) as folding wings were not en vogue during this time. The operational crew component comprised of 468 sailors and applicable air wing personnel. Her dimensions showcased a length of 542 feet, 3 inches and a width of 65ft, 3 inches. Two gantry cranes were fitted while Number 1 Hole was dedicated to aviation fuel storage. The starboard side uptakes were cross connected to the port side and hinged down for unobstructed flight deck operations.

An interesting historical footnote of Langley lore was a carrier pigeon house installed on the stern section of the ship between the 5" 51 caliber anti-aircraft guns. Pigeons were still utilized on navy ships of the time and carried aboard seaplanes for message transport, this beginning about the time of World War I. The US Navy pigeons were "trained" at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard at the same time that USS Langley was being converted to CV-1. Though the use of trained animals might sound applicable here, it presented the operator with some natural dilemmas. It seemed that when a handful of pigeons were released at any one time, they returned to the ship. On another occasion however, a large number of pigeons were released near Tangier Island in the Chesapeake Bay and did not return, instead deciding to fly southwards and eventually ending up at the Norfolk shipyard. For such "dereliction" of pigeon training, these particular messenger pigeons were "discharged" from sea duty and not returned to Langley. The pigeon house was therefore rebuilt as the executive officer's quarters.

October 1922 was an important month in naval aviation history, marking the first take-off and landing of an aircraft from an aircraft carrier at sea. One such Vought VE-7 Bluebird biplane made history by being the first airplane to take-off from the USS Langley on October 17th, 1922 with Lieutenant Commander Virgil C. (Squash) Griffin at the controls of the fighter aircraft. Nine days later, on the 26th, Lieutenant Commander G. de Chevalier landed an Aeromarine 39B biplane aircraft on the deck of the USS Langley while she was under steam.

After some additional repairs, the USS Langley proceeded to the Caribbean Sea for carrier flight operation consisting of launching and landing tests. By June she was training along the Atlantic coast until 1924. Langley then participated in training maneuvers and spent the summer at Norfolk for repairs. In November, Langley departed for the West Coast and arrived in San Diego, California to join the Pacific Battle Fleet. For the next twelve years she would operate off the West Coast and in Hawaiian waters, undergoing basic fleet training, pilot training, and tactical game exercises.

In October 1936, Langley returned to Mare Island Navy Yard in California for an overhaul and conversion as a seaplane tender. With her career as an aircraft carrier officially ended, her trained pilots were transferred to the USS Lexington and USS Saratoga. Langley was now re-classified as AV-3 with the conversion completing in February of 1937. She was then assigned to the Aircraft Scouting Force and commenced her tending duties out of Seattle-Washington, Sitka-Alaska, Pearl Harbor-Hawaii, and San Diego-California. In July of 1939, she departed to assume her duties with the Pacific Fleet at Manila in the Philippines arriving in September that year.

Upon the US entry into World War II, Langley was anchored off Cavite, Philippines and remained undetected by Japanese forces. On December 8th, following the invasion of the Philippines by Japan, she steamed from Cavite to Balikpapan in the Dutch East Indies. Japanese advances continued and Langley was ordered to depart for Australia, arriving in Darwin on January 1st, 1942. The US Navy at this time was stretched perilously thin so Langley became part of a combined naval force with the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM). In this capacity, USS Langley assisted the Royal Australian Air Force in running anti-submarine patrols out of Darwin, Australia.

With the Allies needing aircraft in Southeast Asia, Langley ferried 32 Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighter aircraft assigned to the United States Army Air Force 49th Pursuit Group to Tjilatjap, Java in February. Langley then left Tjilatjap on February 27th to rejoin her destroyer group made up of the Whipple and Edsall. When she was about 75 miles (120 km) south of Tjilatjap, nine Japanese twin-engine Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" bombers attacked her. During the attack, USS Langley was hit by no less than 5 bombs, killing 16 of her crew members. Her planes resting along her flight deck were also set afire in the attack and ensuing explosions below her flight deck impaired her ability to steer, forcing her to list to port. After a valiant attempt by her crew to return to Java, the USS Langley went dead in the water. With her engine room now flooding beyond hope of recovery, the order was given to abandon ship for all hands aboard. Once all crew were safely transferred off the ship, the accompanying destroyer Whipple fired nine 4" inch shells into USS Langley while Edsall fired two torpedoes into her side for good measure. The decision to sink Langley was to ensure she would not become a Japanese war prize. The surviving Langley crew went on to serve on many other carriers in the conflict, aiding greatly to the Allied war effort. Despite her unceremonious fate at sea, the USS Langley had already achieved a memorable and lasting legacy for those that served under her banner.

The USS Jupiter/USS Langley received several awards during her tenure at sea. As the Jupiter, these included the Mexican Service Medal and the World War 1 victory medal. As the Langley, this included the American Defense Service Medal ("Fleet" clasp), the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal and the World War 2 Victory Medal.

USS Lexington

Originally designed as a battlecruiser, the USS Lexington CV-2 aircraft carrier was lost to action against Japanese forces in the Battle of Coral Sea on May 8th, 1942.

The USS Lexington (CV-2) and the USS Saratoga (CV-3) both served the United States Navy well in the inter-war years, supplying the nation with the priceless experience that would pay off by the time of World War 2. The USS Lexington was the lead ship of the Lexington-class with the Saratoga acting as her sister. The Lexington received her name after the Battle of Lexington in 1775 as part of the American Revolutionary War, the war representing among the earliest action between the rebelling colonists and the British Monarchy. CV-2 became the fourth USN vessel to be named Lexington.

By 1916, World War 1 was in full swing throughout Europe. American involvement in the conflict would not hit a fever pitch until 1918 but plans were being drawn up to bring the military up to fighting speed, particularly the United States Navy. This included the drafting of a collection of powerful battlecruisers, each coming in at 35,300 tons and to be comprised of a six-ship, boiler-powered class. The first two ships would be designated as the USS Lexington (CC-1) and the USS Saratoga (CC-3). The war formally came to a close in November of 1918 and, with it, much of the military buildup for all countries involved. Progress on the battlecruisers continued, albeit in limited fashion, and the CC-1 was laid down on January 8th, 1921 with construction of the ship handled by the Fore River Ship and Engine Building Company of Quincy, Massachusetts (New York Shipbuilding of Camden handled the Saratoga). Also on the horizon was the intended production of the battlecruisers USS Constellation, USS Ranger, USS Constitution and the USS United States.

The Washington Naval Conference - a meeting held by major naval world players taking place in Washington, D.C., to agree to terms of a broad disarmament occurred from November 12th, 1921 into February 6th, 1922. The goal of the conference was more-or-less to preserve peace in the known world without the escalation of arms races as a guiding beacon to further war. As such, certain limitations were agreed upon and enacted to keep naval powers in check. One of the major treaties to come out of the conference became the Washington Naval Treaty. This treaty looked to end "all-new" battleship construction and limit the size and armament of existing surface vessels. This resulted in a number of large, powerful ships being dismantled and scrapped altogether while others were instead converted to less belligerent roles such as that of aircraft carrier. These rules would be skirted by the powers of Germany and Japan, producing two of the most powerful battleships ever made - the KMS Bismarck and the IJN Yamato respectively.

Nevertheless, the CC-1 and CC-3 both fell into this conversion program with the decision formally made on July 1st, 1922. Plans for the construction of the USS Constellation, USS Ranger, USS Constitution and USS United States were therefore scrapped in full. Each remaining ship was displaced down approximately 8,600 tons by the deletion of their 16-inch main guns as well as their applicable turret emplacements and ammunition stores. In their place was installed a large-spanning 880-foot long, 90-foot wide flightdeck suspended some 60 feet above the waterline. A forward-mounted transverse catapult was fitted as were service cranes to handle cargo and seaplanes as needed. Internal storage space would allow for the housing of some 120 aircraft of the day throughout her 450-foot two-story hangar deck. There was also a 120-foot hold for aircraft not in use and additional systems could be suspended from the hangar roof if need be. Two elevators were installed to facilitate the movement of aircraft from deck to deck. Her battlecruiser hull remained largely intact as did her original armor arrangement though additional armor was secured along the decks and plate armoring ran right up to the flight deck. There was an island fitted just forward of the large identifiable funnel and both were set off to the starboard side in a revolutionary new arrangement for aircraft carriers. The funnel would alternatively serve the design well, becoming the structure piece for which the US Navy could adapt new radar installations as they became available. Another key feature was an opening for the release or recovery of boats.

Self-defense was still the order of the day and the new carriers were outfitted with a collection of 8x 8-inch /55 caliber guns, 12 x 5-inch /25 caliber anti-aircraft guns and 4 x 6-pounder saluting cannons. The 8-inch / 55 caliber gun turrets were set in tandem pairs both mounted forward and aft of the island and funnel. Crew complement was reported at 1,899 men made up of 1,730 sailors and 169 officers. Power was derived from 16 x Yarrow boilers powering 4 x General Electric steam turbines and, in turn, powered 4 x main drive motors with an output of 180,000 shaft horsepower. Four turbo-generators fed eight electric motors with two motors to a shaft. The engine arrangement was one key piece retained from the original battlecruiser design. The arrangement allowed for a speed of just over 33 knots to be reached with a range equivalent to 10,000 nautical miles.

Upon delivery and acceptance into service, the USS Lexington (CV-2) became the United States Navy's first fleet aircraft carrier. She was launched to sea on October 3rd, 1925, under sponsorship of Mrs. Theodore Douglas Robinson - then wife to the Assistant Secretary of the Navy - and officially commissioned on December 14th, 1927 with Captain Albert W. Marshall behind the helm. Following the traditional "shake down" period for naval vessels, the USS Lexington joined her allies in the Battle Fleet out of San Pedro, California on April 7th, 1928. She ran through a period of valuable training for her crew, officers and naval aviators and participated in all-important Pacific war games. She would be one of the earliest US Navy ships to received the first maritime production radar system available in the form of the RCA CXAM-1.

At the time of the surprise attack by Japanese forces on Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941, the USS Lexington was away on a delivery call to Midway Island to support the garrison of US Marines holding down the fort. Luckily for the American Pacific Fleet, the three major carriers in the region were all out of the harbor at the time of the attack - including the USS Saratoga undergoing a refit in San Diego and the USS Enterprise also out on delivery. Post-attack, the USS Lexington launched her search planes in vain to search for the Japanese fleet but came up empty. Regardless, the US was now officially committed to was with the Empire of Japan and there would be much more in store for the USS Lexington than aircraft deliveries from this point on.

Lexington served as the flagship for Task Force 11 out of Pearl under the command of Vice Admiral Wilson Brown on January 11th, 1942. While en route with TF 11, she was attacked by a contingent of 18 Japanese aircraft but repelled them with her own fighters, resulting in the destruction of 17 of the enemy. She was put on a series of patrols for the time being, actively seeking out the enemy fleet and provided air cover for a Marshall Islands raid. On March 6th, 1942, she met up with Task Force 17 and the much newer USS Yorktown before returning to Pearl for an armament refitting. Her original 8-inch guns and four of her 5-inch guns were replaced with six 28mm quadruple- and thirty 20mm Oerlikon single-mount anti-aircraft cannons. She was back with TF 17 by May 1st.

The Battle of Coral Sea was next on the Lexington's radar. She and TF 17 spotted an enemy task force sent to escort a New Guinea invasion force tasked with the capture of Port Moresby. Port Moresby would serve the Japanese Army and Navy well as a stepping stone to the ultimate invasion of the Australian mainland. The carrier force was counting on an Allied response to the invasion force and was to attack such a response from the vulnerable rear, crushing the attempt in the process. The Japanese Task Force included the light carrier IJN Shoho and the large carriers IJN Shokaku and IJN Zuikaku. USS Lexington and USS Saratoga formed the backbone of the American force ready to match metal for metal.

Bad weather persisted from May 5th to May 6th, to which neither force spotted one another. All that changed on the 7th however as the Japanese invasion force was located. The Americans responded by launching two-thirds of their planes thinking that the Japanese carriers were also among the group of transports. This forced a change of course for the Japanese invasion force but left the IJN Shoho as the primary target to the incoming Allied attack. All she could make due with were her close-range anti-aircraft guns and a small contingent of just 21 aircraft. While the Lexington's aircraft were repelled in the subsequent action by the force of ships, Saratoga's wave hit the Shoho with no less than thirteen 1,000lb bombs, several torpedoes and one crashing SBD Dauntless (her two-man crew was killed in the process). Amazingly, the Americans lost just three aircraft in the fray.

May 8th saw each carrier group only 200 miles apart and both spotted the other in turn, launching their warplanes. Shokaku was hit twice by USS Saratoga dive-bombers, one bomb disabling the launch deck and essentially taking her out of the fight. USS Lexington's aircraft arrived late but an aviator managed a hit to Shokaku to worsen the damage. While she survived the battle, she lost most of her air group at Coral Sea.

On the other side of the battlefield, a 69-strong Japanese aircraft group appeared and laid a direct hit on Yorktown but the resulting destruction was not overly critical to operations. At the same time, Japanese aircraft engaged Lexington and hit her squarely with two torpedoes along her forward portside bow. Simultaneously, Japanese dive-bombers swooped in and managed two direct hits on her from above - one on the funnel structure and one on the forward portside flight deck. The attack jammed the Lexington's elevator in the raised position but her flightdeck was left intact.

The direct blasts and near misses of the Japanese bombs and torpedoes did more internal damage than initially noted. The ripple effect of the explosions had jarred aviation fuel tanks under her flightdeck that, though the internal fires had been put out by crews, the explosive gasses still permeated about the confines of the ship. Approximately an hour after the initial explosions were felt, a seemingly random spark occurred somewhere in the ship, in turn igniting the potent gasses, causing a series of explosions to ripple about the vessel and fires broke out. The ship listed to port and billowed smoke.

Realizing the Lexington was most likely a loss, the remaining aircraft were ordered to fly to their new home aboard the USS Yorktown. Lexington herself was subsequently abandoned per captain's order at 17:00 hours and ultimately done in by two torpedoes from the destroyer USS Phelps to prevent her capture by the enemy. In true honorable fashion, the last persons to leave the ship were Captain Frederick Carl Sherman and his Executive Officer, Commander Morton T. Seligman. The USS Lexington was officially given to the sea at 19:56 and her part in the war was over. She was struck from the US Naval Register on June 24th, 1942. During her World War 2 tenure, the ship earned herself and her crews the American Defense Service Medal, the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal (with 2 Stars) and the World War 2 Victory Medal. Of the 2,951 crew aboard Lexington at the time of the Battle of Coral Sea, 216 were killed in action.

While technically a victory for Japan, the Battle of Coral Sea proved their first major setback in their conquest of the Pacific and did away with any though of invading the Australian mainland. The Americans lost a major carrier in the process and hard lessons were learned for future combat actions that would play well into total victory for the Allies in the Theater. USS Lexington proved a fighter till the end, a boxer on the ropes not ready to accept defeat. The price for victory proved high on that fateful day.

During her tenure at sea, USS Lexington (CV-2) became affectionately known by the nicknames of the "Gray Lady" and "Lady Lex". As an aside, five days after the report of her sinking was made public, workers at the Fore River Shipbuilding Company in Quincy, Massachusetts petitioned the US Navy Secretary, Frank Knox, to rename the current carrier (USS Cabot) then under construction at the shipyard. The petition was accepted and the Cabot now became USS Lexington (CV-16) in honor of the CV-2.

USS Intrepid

The USS Intrepid survived the perils of World War 2 to fight on through the Vietnam War, eventually to retire as a floating museum.

The USS Intrepid served the United States Navy throughout World War 2 and beyond. The vessel was designed from the new Essex-class of aircraft carriers and was officially added to the navy inventory in 1943. The Intrepid would go on to see extensive combat (known best for its involvement in the Battle of Leyte Gulf) and would become a pivotal piece for American victory in the Pacific Theater. The vessel survived the rigors of war for over 30 years and would eventually be saved as a floating museum - an honorable fate not shared with the other great American carrier - the USS Enterprise.



The Intrepid was a result of the Fiscal Year 1940 program to which a total of five of these Essex-class carriers emerged (beginning with the USS Essex itself). The Intrepid became the third Essex-class ship in the family and was joined by six more of this initial group in 1941. A total of 27 Essex-class carriers would eventually be built with many available for the final death blow on Japan by mid-1945. The Intrepid herself would finish construction in April of 1943 and be pushed off for her sea trials and "shake down" voyage on April 26th. With the pressures of war, the Intrepid would only have to wait a short few months before official commissioning. 



Design followed standard fare, with the island located to the starboard side and the flightdeck to the port running from stern to bow. A total of three wood-planked elevators serviced the flight deck (one port-side deck-edge and two centerline, port and aft of the island superstructure). The port-side elevator was actually pioneered in the Wasp design and was liked so much that senior officers began requesting its presence in all future carrier designs. Two vertically-oriented launch catapults were provided at the bow of the ship (a third - somewhat useless - horizontally-oriented catapult was removed early on). Total aircraft assortment varied between 90 to 100 depending on type. Some 240,000 gallons (US) of aviation fuel was carried along with an extensive amount of ammunition and ordnance for the air group. 


Armament consisted of self-defense weaponry in the form of 8 x 5" cannons (4 in single mountings and 4 in dual-mountings), 8 x 40mm cannons in quadruple mountings and no fewer than 46 20mm cannons in single mountings (later up to 52 such cannons) scattered about the ship. As a whole, the Essex-class of carriers were well-built and well-protected, being able to sustain heavy damage and continually stay in action and have that damage repaired rather quickly in turn. Armor was adequate for the most part, reaching some 4 inches at its thickest. In a testament to its design and abilities, none of the Essex-class carriers were lost in all of World War 2.



The island superstructure sat on the starboard side and directed all all operational functions. The island was defended by eight of the 40mm cannons for anti-aircraft defense. Additionally, the island was home to the search radar and radar directors for the 5-in cannon. Radio communications were handled via two lattice masts joined by wiring connecting the two structures which were fitted off to the right of the forward portion of the flight deck. This position was aptly-protected by a collection of 40mm and 20mm cannon.

Propulsion for the USS Intrepid was handled by 8 x Babcock & Wilcox oil-fired boilers driving 4 x Westinghouse-brand steam turbines which powered 4 x propeller shafts for a total output of 150,000 shaft horsepower. Some 6,161 tons of oil was carried for the engines. A crew of 2,600 enlisted sailors and officers called the USS Intrepid "home".

Throughout early 1944, the Intrepid took part in preparations for the invasion of the Marshall Islands, raiding Japanese-held positions and destroying enemy aircraft and providing air cover for US Marines in the inevitable amphibious landings. Following the invasion, the Intrepid was involved in action against Japanese surface ships and assisted in the sinking of two destroyers along with thousands of tons of enemy shipping. An enemy torpedo eventually struck her in the starboard side which resulted in flooding and alignment issues with her rudder forcing the crew to operate on full port-side power and lesser starboard power. By this time, the improvised method was abandoned as she made her way back to Pearl Harbor and then California for full repairs. By mid-1944, the Intrepid was back in action after two months away.

Next for the vessel was attacks on Palaus and the Philippines during a period encompassing September through November of 1944. Her air wing struck at Japanese targets of opportunity and airfields whenever possible, hoping to cripple any measure of an aerial counter attack and force the occupiers from the collection of islands. In October, Intrepid planes offered up air support for US Marine landings at Leyte eventually becoming embroiled in the "Battle of Leyte Gulf" as no fewer than three Japanese forces converged on in the region. On October 24th, elements of Intrepid and Cabot attacked Center Force, crippled the battleship Yamato and sank the Musashi in an entire day of fighting. The following day, Intrepid aircraft damaged the carriers Zuiho and Zuikaku and sank the Chitose. Between October and November, the Intrepid would fall victim to no fewer than three successful Kamikaze attacks, all causing damage and fires and the loss of dozens of lives yet the vessel still stayed in the game and pushed forward.

In April of 1945, the Intrepid took part in the invasion of Okinawa, flying support for the amphibious landings by US Marines. Another kamikaze attack followed, killing eight more of the Intrepid crew but the stellar work of the damage control crews ensured that the flight deck was ready for friendly aircraft to land in a matter of hours. On August 15th, the USS Intrepid officially received word to cancel any remaining offensive operations - the Second World War was over. By December of 1945, the Intrepid returned to California and eventually settled off of San Francisco.

The USS Intrepid was initially laid down at the end of 1941 and launched by mid 1943. She was officially commissioned in August of that year and served until decommissioning in 1974. During this time, she underwent a classification change from "CV" to "CVA" on October 1st, 1952 and another classification change from "CVA" to "CVS" on March 31st, 1962. Upon becoming the CVA-11, the Intrepid also received work to strengthen her flight deck and catapults and a redesigned island. Upon becoming the CVS-11, she received an angled flight deck and enclosed bow and pushed into service as an anti-submarine carrier. During these Cold War years, her primary role was operations undertaken around Europe with a light attack air group before coming into play as a "special attack carrier" for the Vietnam Conflict. In support of US Navy operations in Vietnam, the USS Intrepid saw action from the South China Sea.

Appropriately, the USS Intrepid carried the nicknames of "Evil I" and "Dry I" from her time spent in dry dock. But because of her major role in World War 2, she also carried the nickname of "The Fighting I". Today, the USS Intrepid serves as a museum ship, harbored as a floating museum in New York City waters. The Intrepid also served in the recovery of the Mercury and Gemini space capsules during the 1960's.

Specifications for the USS Intrepid (CV-11)

Dimensions:

Length: 872ft (265.79m)

Beam: 147.6ft (44.99m)

Draught: 34.2ft (10.42m)

Performance:

Surface Speed: 33kts (38mph)

Range: 17,275miles (27,801km)

         

Structure:

Complement: 2,600

Suface Displacement: 27,100tons

Power:

Engine(s): 8 x Babcock & Wilcox oil-fired boilers driving 4 x Westinghouse steam turbine engines operating 4 x shafts with total output of 150,000shp.

Air Arm:

Up to 100 aircraft of various makes and types. Example load: 36 x Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters; 37 x Douglas SBD Dauntless dive-bombers; 18 x Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo-bombers.

Armament Suite:

4 x 5" dual-mount anti-aircraft cannons

4 x 5" single-mount anti-aircraft cannons

8 x 40mm Bofors quad-mount anti-aircraft cannons

46 x 20mm Oerlikon single-mount cannons (total of 52 such cannons installed by the end of the war)